Preconfederation Ornithology

Pierre Du Bua de Monts, Marc Lescarbot and Samuel Champlain were involved in the first settlements in Acadia, at St Croix Island, New Brunswick in 1603, and Port-Royal, Nova Scotia in 1604.

The French founded New France in 1608 at Quebec, followed by numerous re-establishments of their Acadian colony starting in 1610. An additional influx of settlers brought Nicolas Denys to Acadia in 1632. In 1653 Denys was able to secure a position from the French crown as “Lord Proprietor and Governor of Cape Breton”. He purchased a tract of coastal land from the Company of New France, which stretched from Cap Rosiers in what is now Forillon National Park in the Gaspe, through New Brunswick and included all of Cape Breton Island. Denys wrote extensively on the wildlife and ornithology in his new homeland. For details see Nicolas Denys under 17th century Acadia.

Jacques Cartier, Champlain and Lescarbot, and many other early explorers, made many crossings of the Atlantic from France. Lescarbot, who visited the Grand Banks in late June 1606 notes the birds most frequently encountered were “Godes, Fouquets and others that one calls Happe-foyes” in his Histoire de la Nouvelle-France (1609:561). It was a common practice at the time to mention these seabirds by name only.

Two of the most complete early accounts of seabirds off Newfoundland were provided by Denys (1672) and Marin de Diereville who visited Acadia over the course of a year (1699-1700). The ornithological writings of these men which pertain to Newfoundland are set out below.

Nicolas Denys (1598-1688)

Denys mentioned seabirds he encountered on his trans-Atlantic voyages. The early explorers had little difficulty putting names to virtually all the seabirds encountered on the coasts of Atlantic Canada since they were also found in the Northeast Atlantic. The practice of bringing back unusual or exotic live birds and animals from foreign lands was well established by the early 17th century. Most of the seabirds and pelagics encountered by the French travellers were thought to be known European species. This may account for the fact that while names were given descriptions were scant. In addition, there is little evidence that any were secured for collections as preservation techniques were primitive, the birds were known and colourful tropical exotics were in much greater demand.

Denys, like other French pioneers like Champlain, made many crossings of the Atlantic. His manuscript entitled The Description and Natural History of the Coasts of North America [Acadia] was originally published in 1672. It was translated, edited and published in English by William Ganong in 1908. Excerpts from the Ganong translation (pp. 266-268) provides some of the earliest and best descriptions of seabirds. This encouraged Ganong, more familiar with botany than zoology, to try to identify birds most often described by most authors by name only.

The Ganong translation provides the French names for the birds (put in brackets) with his translation which includes original MS page numbers in square brackets, as follows:

It is also worth while to know that upon the Bank, which is twenty- [49] five leagues from the nearest land, there are to be seen so great a quantity of birds as to be almost unbelievable, such as Fulmars (Happefoye), Petrels (Croiseurs) Guillemots (Poules de mer), Great Auks (Pennegoins) and many other sorts. I shall speak only of these particular ones. 

This introduction is followed by a more detailed discussion which assists with the identification of each bird:

P. 266 Happefoye (Ganong Fulmar)

The Fulmars (Happefoye) 1 are very gluttonous birds. They are thus called because they live on the liver of the Cod. If they see a ship engaged in fishing they assemble in very great numbers around her to seize the livers which fall into the sea. As soon as one of these is thrown in, more than fifty of these birds pounce upon it, and fight among themselves to secure it. They come close up to the vessel, and sometimes one is able to kill them [50] with a pole. Their gluttony makes them easily taken by means of hooks which are attached at the end of a little line, with which the fishermen (p. 267) are furnished on purpose. This line is supported upon the water by a piece of cork, and a fragment of liver is placed upon the hook. This is thrown as far off as possible. Immediately these birds fight as to which one will capture it. After a smart struggle, finally one seizes it, and is caught by the beak, [and] is drawn on board. It is necessary to take great care that it does not seize the hand. Its upper beak is hooked, and passes much over the under. If it bites it pierces the finger or the hand. When it has been taken from the hook, and allowed to go [51] upon the quarter-deck, it does not fly away. It does not know how to rise, at least when it is not on the water. This fishery provides a great amusement. 

Footnote 1. That is, translated, “liver-snatchers.'’ Our author’s description of its appearance and habits places its identity beyond doubt; it is the fulmar or noddy. Diereville (*Relation du Voyage du Port Royal*, 1710,:44) also describes it fully, and says the Normans call it fauquets, under which name Champlain gives some account of it in his Voyage of 1618 (Laverdiere’s edition, 600). Lescarbot also mentions it (*Histoire de la Nouvelle France*, 1612:533). This is not to be confounded with the related hagdon, or greater shearwater, which is also very abundant on the Grand Bank, and is very commonly caught, and highly esteemed as food, by the fishermen of the present day, as related in the *Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States*, Section V. Vol. I. 127:132.

I have written a short paper on the names given to birds by all the early French explorers which will be found under 18th Century New France. In summary: Northern Fulmar is named “happefoye” by Lescarbot, Louis Nicolas, and Denys. “Fauquet” is the name applied by Champlain, Pierre Boucher and Diereville for this species. This bird seems almost certainly to be the Great Shearwater. Verification of this identification is provided in the discussion of Diereville’s birds below.

P. 267 Croiseurs (Ganong: Wilson’s Storm-Petrel)

The Petrels (croiseurs) 1 are birds which also come to eat the livers, but they do not approach so near. They are called Croiseurs because they are ever crossing on the sea from one side to the other. Their flight is different from that of other birds in this, that they fly, so to speak, crosswise, having one wing up towards the sky and the other towards the sea, so that, in order to turn, they bring the upper wing undermost. It is found always from the time one is at sea a hundred leagues from land as far as New France. [52] A day never passes that one does not see them go crossing from one side to the other. This is in order to find some little fish to eat, of those which exist between wind and water, such as the Flying fish, the Herring, the Sardine, and others on which it lives. 

Footnote 1: Literally “croiseurs.” Our author’s description makes it plain that this is the Wilson’s (also called stormy) petrel, or Mother Carey’s chicken. 

Ganong’s suggestion that “croiseur” is the Wilson’s Storm-Petrel seems unlikely. The behaviour mentioned by Denys suggests a shearwater species. During the fishing season on the Grand Banks, Great or Sooty Shearwaters are by far the most common pelagics. Since there is no specific mention of plumage the identity is uncertain. “Croisseur” is listed as “pelagic species” by renowned early French ornithologist Vieillot, editor of the ornithological material in the significant early 19th century work Nouveau Dictionnnaire 8:469. Early French navigators also referred to shearwaters as “hirondelles de mer”. “Fouquet” is the more modern French word for seabirds such as fulmars and shearwaters. Denys’s “croiseur” is likely a shearwater. Since this bird is clearly differentiated by Denys from the Great Shearwater, it is likely the Sooty Shearwater.

P. 267 Poule de Mer (Ganong: Black Guillemot)

The Guillemot (Poule de mer) 2 is thus called for its resemblance to this land animal [domestic chicken]. It lives also on little fish and livers. It is not gluttonous, but tamer than the others. It is (p. 268) always flying around the ship, and if it perceives any entrails, it throws itself upon them. 

Footnote 2: Poule de mer (literally “sea-hen”) is given by Littre as the European name for the guillemot, and I have no doubt our author applied the name to the common guillemot, whose habits are in full accord with this identification.

The Common Murre in North America is called the Common Guillemot in Britain. The Black Guillemot, usually referred to today by that name in Britain and known in North America as a Guillemot, has always been historically known by early French observers as “pigeon de mer”. Given the more pelagic nature of Common Murre vis-a-vis the Black Guillemot, and the much more northern distribution of the Thick-billed Murre, Denys’s “Poule de Mer” in this case refers to the Common Murre.

P. 268 Pennegoin (Ganong: Great Auk)

The Great Auk [Pennegoin] 1 is another bird, variegated in white and black. It does not fly. It has only two stumps of wings, with which [53] it beats upon the water to aid in fleeing or diving. It is claimed that it dives even to the bottom to seek its prey upon the Bank. It is found more than a hundred leagues from land, where, nevertheless, it comes to lay its eggs, like the others. When they have had their young, they plunge into the water; and their young place themselves upon their backs, and are carried like this as far as the Bank. There one sees some no larger than chickens, although they grow as large as geese. All those birds are [considered] good to eat by the fishermen. As for myself I do not find them agree-able. They taste of oil because of the quantity of fish and of livers they eat; and they serve to make fish oil. [54] The fishermen collect them for this purpose. There are vessels which have made as much as ten to twelve puncheons of it (2) This is nearly everything which is practised in the fishery for green Cod upon the Grand Bank. 

Footnote 1: Pennegoin, called by the English penguin, is well known to be the name applied by early voyagers to the great auk, now extinct. Compare the very full account of its names, with other facts as to its history, &c., by Lucas in Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum ( Washington, D.C.) for 1888. Our authors account is accurate. It seems to have been overlooked by all writers upon this bird. 

Footnote 2 This statement is amply confirmed by other evidence: compare the paper of Lucas sighted earlier

There is no doubt that Pennegoin in this instance is the Great Auk.

Marin de Diereville (1653-1738)

Diereville published Relation of the Voyage to Port Royal in Acadia or New France in 1708. He also encountered and wrote about seabirds on the Grand Banks. The following descriptions likely in late September, 1699, provide some much needed clarity to the identity of Denys’s birds.

P. 69 On the outward voyage he noted seabirds:

Great Shearwater

The most common are the fauquets, as the are called by the Normans thousands of them are sometimes seen together; they are larger than pigeons, with a hooked beak like a Parrot’s, a grey bird with a white breast [Great Shearwater]. Others call them liver-snatchers & this name suits them better, for when, in fishing, that of the cod is thrown into the ocean, the frenzy with which they pounce upon it is a sight; they are so numerous, that vying with one another they come alongside the ship in order to seize the liver the moment it is thrown overboard. They are sometimes caught & the manner in which this is done is rather amusing; a loop is fastened to the end of a rod & around it is attached a little net like a pocket, which is thrown over them, &, and as the sea is covered with them,  a few often remain in it... Nature apparently requires that they should have their feet in the water, so that the waves may raise them up & allow the air, which is necessary for their support in flight, to pass under them. This is a subject for the consideration of the Natural Philosopher.

Diereville’s description of fauquet is definitely the Great Shearwater. The similarity with Denys’s account of his Happefoye strongly suggests Denys's bird was a shearwater. There is a superficial resemblance between the Fulmar and the Greater Shearwater.

Northern Gannet

I saw other birds called Hens (poules de mer) to which the name of Palourdes [Northern  Gannet]  is also given, perhaps because they are very heavy in flight; they are much larger than the others [shearwaters], but not so numerous. Their colour is dark brown & they also are very eager in pursuit of liver...[they have] silver stripes, so well arranged up their wings...

Diereville fired at them. Some were hit and fell into the water but could not be retrieved so he did not see them closer. Numerous accounts on crossings confirm the difficulty of retrieving specimens shot at sea. Poules de mer is a general term widely used by early French sailors for seabirds. The gannet is a considerably larger bird than northwest Atlantic shearwaters. The brown and mottled appearance suggests birds Diereville noted gannets in various immature plumages.

Bibliography

• Denys, Nicolas. Translated and Edited by William Ganong. 1908. The Description and Natural History of North America. Toronto: The Champlain Society.
• Diereville. Sieur de. Translated and edited by Mrs. Clarence Webster. 1708 Relation of the Voyage to Port Royal in Acadia or New France. Toronto: The Champlain Society
• Lescarbot, Marc. 1609. Histoire de la Nouvelle-France. Paris: Jean Milot